GROWL, SNARL, BITE: CANINE AGGRESSION TO PEOPLE Jacqueline C. Neilson, DVM, Diplomate ACVB Animal Behavior Clinic Portland, OR Aggression continues to be the most common reason that dogs are brought to veterinary behaviorists. In 1994 the CDC reported that 800,000 people that year had to seek medical care for a dog bite. This number had increased 37% since 1986. When you consider how many dog bites never receive any professional medical attention, the number of actual dog bites per year in the United States is estimated to be in the millions. About 10 people die per year secondary to dog bite wounds. It is estimated that 50% of children have been bitten by a dog by the time they turn 18 years old. These numbers attest to the fact that canine aggression is a serious public health concern in the United States. Myths and misinformation about aggression abound. Aggression can be broadly thought of as a threatening or hostile action directed toward an individual or group with the intention of increasing distance between the two parties. It is important to remember that aggression is usually a normal behavior. When faced with aggression from a family pet, the pet owner needs to be able to turn to a resource that is well- informed, objective and qualified to help with aggression problems. It is critical that veterinarians start to identify problem behaviors early and be a resource for guidance in treatment and control of behavioral problems. When dealing with any aspect of behavior, there can be confusion with terminology since the same condition may be given several different titles. The terminology associated with canine aggression is not immune to this confusion. The categories referred to in this paper are all based upon underlying motivations for the aggression. There are numerous categories of aggression directed at people including dominance aggression, territorial aggression, fear aggression, possessive aggression, pain related aggression, predatory aggression, maternal aggression, redirected aggression and idiopathic aggression. The focus of this discussion will be on the more common types of aggression directed toward people which includes dominance aggression, territorial aggression and fear aggression. As with most problematic behaviors, treatment success depends upon many social and environmental factors. Considerations such as owner expectations, breed, accuracy of diagnosis and owner compliance all play a role in the successful control of the problem. Sometimes, despite out efforts, the risks associated with the aggression are significant enough to warrant euthanasia of the animal. HISTORICAL INFORMATION The historical information gathered about the animal and specifically the aggressive episodes help to determine a diagnosis for the presenting problem. Various techniques can be used to gather the information including questionnaires and interviews. A combination of the two methods probably provides the general practitioner with the most reliable information. Initially the owners should be given a questionnaire to fill out at home (see Overall, Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Small Animals for examples). The veterinarian can then review the form at their leisure prior to the consultation. Finally, a verbal review of the problem should be performed during the consultation, focusing on any incomplete answers. Further details can be gathered regarding the specific aggressive incidents. Important historical information includes the onset/duration of the aggression, triggers of the aggression, the severity of the aggression and the body signals associated with the aggression. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS A complete physical examination is indicated with any behavioral problem, including aggression. Of course there may be some limitations imposed due to the dog's aggression. If the dog exhibits aggression when handled, an oral exam may not be possible. Thoracic auscultation can be impaired due to vocalizations and abdominal palpation may be non-productive due to abdominal splinting. Blood work is indicated if a complete physical examination is not possible or if the veterinarian suspects an underlying medical condition. A sudden onset of aggression warrants a blood analysis. Blood analysis should include a CBC, chemistry panel and free T4 evaluation. Blood analysis is indicated prior to instituting any pharmacological treatment. Other diagnostic tests such as radiographic evaluation, CT scan or MRI should be performed as indicated by physical exam findings or historical information. GENETIC AND NEUROLOGICAL BASIS OF AGGRESSION Data on breed predispositions for aggression and specific lineages of aggression strongly suggest that genetics can play a significant role in aggression. How genes exert their influence on behavior is not a simple equation. Genes encode for the production of enzymes and proteins that make anatomic structures and physiological processes that shape behavior. During this process different environmental things may influence their development such as temperature, experience and nutrients. Therefore, genes and experience are inextricably bound together in the development of a behavior. For a specific behavior, ie. aggression, there may be many genes contributing to its expression. As canine genetic mapping projects continue, we will gather more information about the genetics of canine behavior. There is a documented association between aggression and serotonin dysfunction in many species, including humans. Central serotonin (5-hydroxytryptophan, 5-HT) appears to inhibit impulsive behavior, thereby modulating aggression. Unfortunately, there is no simple test to determine central serotonin levels. Studies measuring the levels of a 5-HT metabolite, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) in the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) have indicated that increased aggressive behavior is present in animals with decreased CSF 5-HIAA. Studies by Reisner et. al. established that dogs with dominance aggression had lower CSF 5- HIAA levels on post-mortem analysis than did control laboratory dogs. The function and presence of serotonin receptors and enzymes that metabolize serotonin in the brain may also contribute to the neurobiological basis of aggressive behavior. DOMINANCE AGGRESSION The dog considers human family members as part of its pack. Within the pack there is a leadership hierarchy. Problems tend to occur when the owner(s) is unwilling or unable to maintain a dominant position in the pack. The dog uses aggression to control situations. Usually the presenting complaint is that the dog growls or snaps at family members or very familiar people in fairly predictable situations. Usually the dog does not exhibit aggression to strangers or unfamiliar people. Sometimes the owner reports that the dog shows aggression toward family members for no reason. In the latter case, the owner often doesn't recognize the triggers for the aggression. A dog exhibiting dominance aggression may appear very offensive or "dominant" in its behavior: direct stare, snarl, growl, piloerection, high tail with a stiff quick movement or the dog may show ambivalent signals of both dominant and submissive behaviors: head lowered, ears back, averting gaze, cowering. Examples of common situations that trigger dominance related aggression include: when the dog is protecting food or certain objects (toys, stolen objects); when the dog is disturbed when sleeping/resting; when the owner is trying to lead the dog by the collar; when the owner is disciplining the dog; when the owner is grooming the dog or any situation where the dog perceives actions of the human as a challenge or perhaps a violation of its high social rank. Another hypothesis for dominance related aggression is that as a youngster, the puppy learns that aggression motivated by fear, conflict or play often results in the retreat of the person with whom they are interacting. The puppy learns that aggression can get itself out of any uncomfortable situation and this aggressive behavior perpetuates into adulthood. This would explain the cases of "dominance" aggression that have an early onset and would also explain the often ambivalent signals shown by the "dominant" dog during a conflict. Finally, it would account for the success associated with treatment of anxiolytic medications for "dominance" aggression. The breed of dog most likely to be diagnosed with dominance related aggression was identified in reviews of cases seen by three different independent behavioral practices. Of the 26 breeds represented, the most common breeds diagnosed with dominance related aggression were: English Springer Spaniel, Cocker Spaniel, Golden Retriever and Lhasa Apso. Some of these breed tendencies may be due to popularity of a specific breed or expectations of that breed. For example, if there happened to be a larger number of Cocker Spaniels in a certain area relative to other breeds, they may be over represented. Also, the owner of a Golden Retriever may be more likely to seek assistance for an aggression problem than that of a Rottweiler owner because the expectation of the Golden Retriever was to be a safe family dog. That said, on a national survey, English Springer Spaniel owners reported that 48% of the dogs surveyed had growled, snapped or bitten family members in contexts related to dominance issues. A particular kennel in the pedigrees of those aggressive dogs indicated a genetic basis of this behavior. Treatment for dominance related aggression involves restructuring the dominance hierarchy in the household. Nonconfrontational techniques are preferred due to safety and treatment success. The dominance of the owners is reinforced in a non confrontational manner by controlling affection/food/resources and having the dog defer to the owner to receive these valuable things. A head halter can impart better control of the dog to the owner and offer a safe/consistent method of dealing with aggression. Social isolation of an hour's duration is used to punish aggressive displays. Privileges such as access to furniture are removed from the dog. Drug therapy may be considered, especially if underlying anxiety is thought to contribute to the aggression. In one study by Dodman et. al, medication with fluoxetine (Prozac) at 1 mg/kg q 24 hours resulted in a decrease in the intensity and frequency of aggression associated with dominance. Another study by White et. al using clomipramine (Clomicalm) at 1.5 mg/kg q 12 hours to treat signs associated with dominance aggression did not show significant decrease in the aggression as compared to treatment with placebo. TERRITORIAL AGGRESSION Dogs exhibiting territorial aggression generally respond aggressively to unfamiliar people coming onto their territory. Usually the home/yard and the car tend to be the areas where territorial aggression is most pronounced. Another situation that may elicit territorial aggression is the veterinarian or staff member entering an examination room where the dog has been waiting with its owner. A dog in a kennel may also exhibit territorial aggression when unfamiliar people approach the kennel. The aggression is often rewarded because the target of the aggression is successfully "driven away." This is often not a direct result of the aggression, it just so happens that the individual is passing by or delivering mail. Certain breeds are more likely to exhibit territorial aggression than other breeds including German Shepherds and Rottweilers. The age of onset is usually at social maturity (1-3 years of age). Dogs exhibiting territorial aggression usually display signs designed to increase distance between themselves and the intruder. These include body postures that increase their apparent size including piloerection, standing stiff-legged, ears up and tail held up in a vertical position. They may growl, snarl, bark, lunge forward, snap and bite. Treatment involves desensitization and counterconditioning the dog to the arrival of visitors. Situations should be set up where the dog will be able to maintain good behavior and should be rewarded for this. Head halters and leashes can help to achieve good behavior. Gradually the intensity of the stimulus should be increased. Desensitization to specific stimuli associated with the arrival of visitors (ie. doorbell) should be preformed if indicated. Treats should be given by the visitors, if safe. When instigating this treatment program it is important to remove opportunities for the dog to successfully "drive-off" visitors, this includes aggression directed toward passer-bys. Despite "successful" completion of desensitization and counterconditioning exercises, dogs that have exhibited territorial aggression need to be adequately confined so that they do not have the opportunity to injure people. Situations specific to the veterinary hospital can sometimes be fairly simply addressed. Dogs that show aggression to someone entering the exam room should not be taken to the exam room until the veterinarian is already in the room. Alternately, the owner, dog and veterinarian can all enter the room together. Both of these methods prevent the dog from establishing a territory while waiting. Dogs that exhibit aggression at a kennel door can be counterconditioned by having staff intermittently toss treats over/ through the kennel door. Often opening the kennel door with access to a larger secured room will diffuse the aggression at the kennel door and allow easy handling/placement of a leash. FEAR RELATED AGGRESSION Dogs that exhibit fear-related aggression tend to show the behavior to certain people or groups of people (ie. men, children, veterinarians). The fear may be due to a genetic predisposition, lack of socialization or a specific experience. The dog will often display signs of fear or escape behavior before exhibiting aggression. When a fearful dog is trapped, it is most likely to bite. Fearful aggressive dogs often show ambivalent signs of fear, submission and aggression. Some fearful dogs appear very offensive in their aggression. This may be due to the fact that they have experienced negative reinforcement for their aggression in the past. Unfortunately due to the nature of the job, veterinarians often evoke fearful behavior in their patients. Fear related aggression can be seen at any age. Prevention of fear related aggression involves socialization to different classes of people especially during the sensitive socialization period, 3-12 weeks of age. Rehabilitation of dogs already experiencing fear related aggression involves desensitization and counterconditioning to fear evoking stimuli. Head halters can be useful in training. A gradient of the fear evoking stimulus should be established and the dog should be gradually exposed to the stimulus, rewarding good, calm behavior. This can be difficult to implement in the veterinary situation due to time constraints and necessary procedures. That said, investing in some tasty food treats and spending a few extra minutes can often circumvent an aggressive episode. If, when entering a room, you note fearful behavior (ie. cowering, hiding) then avoid direct eye contact with the dog. Use the first few minutes of the exam to discuss historical information with the owner while concurrently tossing tasty treats to the dog. Then perhaps sit down or squat on the floor and encourage the dog to approach you using a high voice. Continue to avert your gaze and offer your hand to scratch the animal under its chin/neck after it has approached you. Continue to give tasty treats. When trying to get a fearful dog out of a kennel, it can be helpful to back up to the kennel door. Of course, whenever interacting with an animal, safety has to be paramount. If you suspect that a dog may become aggressive, ensure proper restraint and muzzling or chemical restraint. Owners should be advised not to comfort anxious behavior as this may inadvertently reward the fear. Instead the owners should engage the dog in an alternative behavior, for example, obedience. References 1. Beaver, BV. Canine Behavior: A Guide for Veterinarians, Philadelphia, WB Saunders Co., 1999. 2. Beaver, BV. The Veterinarian's Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior. Ames, Iowa State Press, 1994 3. Borchelt PL and Voith V L. Readings in Companion Animal Behavior. Trenton, NJ, Veterinary Learning Systems, 1996. 4. Dodman, NH, Donnelly, R, Shuster L, Mertens P, Rand W, Miczek K. Use of fluoxetine to treat dominance aggression in dogs. Journal of the Am Vet Med Assoc 209: 1585-1587, 1996. 5. Landsberg G, Hunthausen W, Ackerman, L. Handbook of Behaviour Problems of the Dog and Cat. Oxford, Great Britain, 1997. 6. Overall, K L. Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Small Animals. St. Louis, Mosby, 1997. 7. Reisner I R. Assessment, Management, and Prognosis of Canine Dominance-Related Aggression. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice Vol 27, No. 3: 479-495, 1997 ************************* WHEN DOGS FIGHT: AGGRESSION BETWEEN HOUSEHOLD DOGS Debra F. Horwitz DVM, Diplomate ACVB Veterinary Behavior Consultations St. Louis, MO Canine social aggression usually occurs in two types of circumstances. The first is aggression toward unfamiliar dogs that are encountered on walks or other social settings. The second is aggression between familiar dogs that live in the same home. Aggression between dogs can result in injury to dogs and to people trying to separate them. The aggressive behavior can consist of growling, snarling, barking, snapping and biting. AGGRESSION BETWEEN FAMILIAR DOGS THAT LIVE TOGETHER (SIBLING RIVALRY) Fights between dogs in the household are usually about dominance-or social status aggression. These fights commonly occur when dogs reach social maturity, about 18-24 months of age, but the range is 12-36 months. Fights will be about those resources that are considered most important to dogs. These include food, resting-places, territory, favored possessions, and favored people. Fights then can occur over treats, owner attention, greeting the owner upon return, sleeping positions near the owner, entering or exiting the home, high arousal situations such as fence running, or movement through tight spaces. These fights occur most often between dogs of the same sex and seem to be most severe between female dogs.1 Conflicts can occur between dogs where the dominance status is ambiguous, in other words they appear to be close in rank, or fights can occur between dogs where one is clearly dominant. In these situations it may be difficult to determine which dog is the dominant one, and often dominance can be context specific with one dog dominant in one situation, and the other dog dominant in another. Hierarchies are not always linear. Regardless, the fighting can be severe and injurious. Under no circumstances should the dogs be encouraged to "fight it out," this can result in severe injury and/or death. When dogs in a household fight, the owners can be injured in redirected aggressive attacks. One scenario that can result in interdog aggression is when a younger, larger, more agile dog challenges an older, previously dominant dog. This is often clearly an attempt to alter the existing hierarchy. Sometimes the older dog will acquiesce and things are fine, other times, the owners do not want the change and intervene. Still in other situations, the older dog will not relinquish the dominant role. Interdog aggression can occur between dogs that were raised together, and are now reaching social maturity with a resulting shift in the social relationship. Lastly, interdog aggression can occur when the dominant dog leaves the household for some reason and the existing dogs try to restructure the hierarchy or when a new dog enters the home. History taking should focus on what circumstances elicit the aggression, what the owners were doing, and how they responded to the aggressive behavior of either dog. The progression of the aggression should be explored; this may help indicate causation and/or maintenance factors for the behavior. The use of punishment must be explored and addressed. The length of time that the aggression has been present and the injuries of the dogs to date are important in determining prognosis. The ages of the animals involved may also determine treatment and prognosis. Owner ability to identify and predict aggressive episodes as well as ability to understand and carry out treatment recommendations will effect results. Aggression between household dogs can be difficult to treat. Sometimes the problem presents such that one dog is clearly dominant to the other, and the subordinate dog does not challenge if the owners do not interfere. If left to their own devices, the dogs will use posturing and threats to end encounters without injury. The first step is explaining canine dominance hierarchies to pet owners. Often they do not understand what hierarchies do, and how they are maintained. The concept of dominant and subordinate relationships between animals was developed from observation of animals (wolves, baboons, chickens) living in social groups.2 Social hierarchies arranged around dominant and subordinate relationships decrease the conflict associated with the allocation of critical resources, i.e. food, shelter, mates and territory.2 When living in social groups, canids will establish dominance hierarchies that may dictate access to certain resources such as food, resting-places, favored possessions, territory and mates but may or may not involve aggression.3 However, a case could be made that dominance behavior may occur without aggression and instead be about control of the outcome. In domestic canid groupings, overt aggression is rare and deference common.4 Another common owner error is the desire to make life "fair". This often results in owners allowing subordinate dogs access to resources, such as owner attention, treats etc., entry into territory, that they would not normally have. The dominant dog may become aggressive toward the subordinate dog to "enforce the rules". This usually results in punishment for the dominant dog. The subordinate dog then learns it can engage in prohibited behavior while the owner is present. At times no fighting occurs when the owners are gone, in fact the owners often leave the dogs together because they never come home to an injured dog. While the dogs are alone, they are aware of the hierarchy and often the subordinate dog does nothing to challenge the dominant animal. In this situation, if there has not been injury to either dog, and the aggression has been limited to threats, treatment has a better prognosis. Usually treatment is centered on supporting the dominant dog. In most cases this is the younger, bigger, more physically capable dog. Often, this is also the aggressor, and this goes counter intuitive to what most owners want to do. This means that the dominant dog has access to everything first-to go outside, to come in, food, owner attention, entry into rooms where the dominant dog and owner are. If the owner is petting the dominant dog and the subordinate dog approaches, the subordinate is sent away and made to wait. Attempts are made to avoid circumstances that elicit aggression. The dogs are separated when unsupervised. If the more dominant dog approaches the subordinate dog and the subordinate dog assumes subordinate postures, the owners are not to intervene. Some owners are able to do this, and the dogs respond and the aggression ceases. On other occasions, the second dog does not wish to be subordinate. This could either be because of a dominance challenge to the hierarchy due to age, or the dogs are very close in social status and one dog is not clearly dominant to the other. One technique that I often use is to make the owner dominant to both dogs when the owner is present. Both dogs should be separated when not supervised to avoid injury. It is also helpful for owners to learn how to recognize canine body language and low-level threats such as eye contact, snarls or low growls. Owners are also instructed to keep records of threats, attacks, or tension producing situations. To facilitate treatment, both dogs should be fitted with headcollars (Gentle Leaderâ/Promise-Premier Pet Products) for owner control or muzzles. The owner needs to feel confident that control of the dogs is possible, and no further injury is going to occur. All privileges are withdrawn from both dogs. The circumstances that elicit aggression are avoided. Owners are told to keep greetings low key, avoid treats and rawhides unless separated or on leash, avoid or control movement through tight spaces. The owner is instructed to train each dog separately to commands for sit, stay and down to increase control. Then, the dogs are put into subordinate positions such as sit/stay or down/stay and only allowed to interact with the owner at owner commands. The owner controls all interactions and access to food, resting places, territory, owner attention and treats. The owner is to not play "favorites" but treat the dogs equally at all times. The dogs are leashed when in the house together, and the leashes fastened to furniture. Another helpful treatment modality is to have the dogs interact in a situation that is neutral where they are both happy. This could be a walk. It is usually best to have two individuals to walk the dogs and not to allow them to forge in front of one another. Another helpful training situation is to feed the dogs at a distance, far enough apart that they do not show aggression. Slowly the dishes are moved closer together as long as the dogs do not react. The food serves as a passive reward in this situation. If the dogs react, the food bowls are moved further apart.5 Headcollars aid in good owner control on walks as well as in the home. When the owner is not home or supervising the dogs, the dogs are separated or crated. It is also important to talk to owners about how to break up fights should they occur. Owners usually try to reach for the collar of the fighting dogs, or if one is small, pick it up. This can result in severe owner injury if the fighting is very intense. Anxiolytic medication may be appropriate in some cases. When owners intervene in fights, redirected aggression is possible. Redirected aggression is aggression (growl, snarl or bite) redirected to a person, animal or object other than that which evoked the aggression.6 If during the course of a dogfight, one owner picks up an animal, the other animal may continue to attack and direct that attack at them. Dogs can also redirect aggression under other circumstances as well including dominance aggression, possessive aggression, territorial aggression and during attention seeking behaviors.7 Prognosis can be extremely variable. When blending households, some family members may refuse to make one dog subordinate even if it is willing and clearly the other dog is dominant. At times the terrier breeds can persist in aggressive behavior despite owner control and intervention, and in those cases alternate living arrangements may need to be made. References 1. Sherman, CK., Reisner, IR., Taliaferro, LA. & Houpt, KA.: Characteristics, Treatment and Outcome of 99 Cases of Aggression Between Dogs. Applied Animal Behavior Science 47 (1996) 91-108. 2. Alcock, J, Animal Behavior: An evolutionary approach. Edition 2. Sunderland, Mass, Sinauer Associates Inc. 1979. 3. Voith, VL, Borchelt, PL, Diagnosis and treatment of Dominance Aggression in dogs, In: Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, Vol. 12:4, 1982, pp. 655-663. 4. Bradshaw, JWS, Nott, HMR. Social and Communication behaviour of companion dogs. In: The Domestic Dog, J. Serpell Ed. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1995, pp. 116-130. 5. Overall, KL.: Animal Behavior Case of the Month. JAVMA 207: 305-307, 1995. 6. Borchelt, PL. & Voith, VL.: Classification of Animal Behavior Problems. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice.12:4. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunder Co. 1982. pp. 571-585. 7. Overall, KL.: Animal Behavior Case of the Month. JAVMA 207: 305-307,1995 ******************* CHANGING THE PET-OWNER RELATIONSHIP Debra F. Horwitz, DVM, Diplomate ACVB Veterinary Behavior Consultations St. Louis, MO When an owner is having problems with their pet, there are both owner driven factors and pet driven factors that are contributory. Some animals with problem behaviors are normal but have learned that certain behaviors are tolerated and beneficial for them. Other animals may be abnormal and respond to owner interaction in a different manner than expected.1 In some situations the owner is interacting with the pet in an inappropriate manner that although unintended may prolong, worsen, or facilitate the problem behavior. The pet on the other hand, is often unaware of what the owner considers proper behavior and therefore is choosing behaviors that it feels are the most appropriate responses. What commonly occurs is miscommunication between the owner and their pet. The owner is using a human form of communication, reasoning and language, something most pets do not understand in the same manner as intended by their owners. The pet however, is communicating in the manner most appropriate for its species, and therefore often misunderstood by the human. The first step in behavior therapy is changing the pet-owner relationship and creating clear rules and expectations. This must be done in a manner that is understood by the pet. The goal of changing how owners and their pets communicate is to create an environment where it is easier for the owner to control the pet and thus elicit good behavior. This step is most useful in treating behavior problems in companion dogs. THE THEORY The theory involved in changing the pet owner relationship is that cross species communication often results in misunderstandings and thus problem behaviors. Therefore, clearer communication is needed. Owners frequently misunderstand a dog's expectations in social communication and group living. The goal is to give the pet clear signals of what is expected so that behavior can begin to change and conform to owner's expectations. By bundling a series of learning and control tasks together, the owner can create an environment for clearer communication. When owners seek help with their problem dog, the problem may be labeled a "dominance" or leadership problem, which can be a simplification of the issue. Practitioners of applied animal behavior interpret dominance hierarchies, ranking and how they interact in the human-dog relationship many different ways and may use varying criteria to define dominance.2,3,4 When living in social groups, canids will establish dominance hierarchies that may dictate access to certain resources such as food, resting-places, favored possessions, territory and mates but may or may not involve aggression.5 These social relationships can be extended to the human members of the household.6 However, a case could be made that dominance behavior may occur without aggression and instead be about control of the outcome. In domestic canid groupings, overt aggression is rare and deference common.5 Owners often inadvertently reinforce a dominant outcome for the dog by deferring to the dog's demands. This sets the dog up as the one in charge, and each interaction that ends with deference to the dog reinforces that assumption. So perhaps the issue is not always one of "dominance" as much as one of control. The animal has learned that certain behaviors result in certain outcomes, which are favorable to the dog. In addition, often a behavior occurs because it can, in other words, the owners do not prevent the dog from engaging in a certain behavior and that in and of itself can be reinforcing. Some dogs that control their environment may do so because it is important to them to be in control. Others may control because they can but yet are anxious about the outcome. Changing the pet-owner relationship focuses on "control" of the dog, which often prohibits the dog from engaging in behaviors that "control" the environment and thus the owner. This alone can have an effect on the expression of problem behaviors. THE PROGRAM None of the elements in this program are new. They have been used before and discussed many places in the applied animal behavior literature. The goal of this program is to place them together and counsel the owner on how and why changing the pet-owner relationship is beneficial to them and their pet. Initially, the owner is educated about canid social structure. Second, the owner is told how dogs communicate and what dominance and subordinance mean to dogs. Third, how animals learn is briefly explained to the owner. Finally, owners are told of how increasing their control over their dog is a positive action that can make their dog more relaxed and compliant in the long term. The first step is a program that requires the dog to comply with an owner command to obtain anything the dog wants. This has been called numerous things since its inception. ("Nothing in life is free" by Dr. Victoria Voith7 and "No such thing as a free lunch" and "Learn to earn" by William E. Campbell8). In essence, the dog is required to follow an owner command, such as "sit" to obtain anything that the dog wants. This could be access to the outdoors to eliminate, food, petting, a ball the list is endless. The goal is for the dog to "earn" everything they desire by deferring to the owner. Deference is accomplished when the dog follows the command to sit or down. If the dog performs the command prior to being asked, it must do something else. This is critical. Unless the owner gives a command and then the dog complies, the dog is still controlling the situation and deference has not occurred. The goal is for the owner to have control. Although many owners have been told that they should control their dog, usually they are counseled to use physical control methods. While an owner can have control by trying to physically control a dog this can be difficult and potentially dangerous. Instead, in this program the owner uses their ability to physically control the environment and the resources to control the dog. By using benign control of resources and deference for access, the owners place themselves in a "dominant" position. It is not necessary for the owner to physically control the dog, merely to control access to things the dog wants. If the dog will not obey the command, the resource is withheld. In essence the dog is offered a choice-do you want the resource enough to comply or not. For some dogs the answer is yes, for others the answer may be no. The second step is control of attention. Many dogs with problem behaviors engage in numerous attention seeking behaviors. These include nudging the owner, pushing, leaning, barking, whining, pacing, scratching the owner, bringing toys and climbing on the owners lap to get attention. The attention can even be "negative" attention such as pushing the dog away or yelling at it; the desired response is an interaction. Some dogs use attention seeking behavior to control the owner, while other may have underlying anxieties which stimulate them to constantly seek information about their environment and social status.9 In either case, the owners are told that they must ignore all attention seeking behaviors. If the dog approaches them for attention, they must ignore the dog. If the dog persists, then they must leave the room. Again, their response is to be benign. They are not to allow the dog to engage them in any interaction. However, this is not a prescription for ignoring the dog. They can give the dog attention, but with certain rules. * They are only to give attention to the dog on their initiative. * The attention should be given when the dog is calm and quiet. * The goal is to reward calm, quiet, good behavior with positive owner-pet interaction. They can call the dog over, request that the dog sit or lie down and then pet the dog. However, it is also critical that they end the interaction and send the dog away. If the problem is aggression, the type and amount of interaction are structured and detailed for the owner. This program of controlling attention has been used in other treatment plans for various behavior problems.10,11,12 These rules also extend to how they are to play with their pet. The owner is instructed to only play with the pet when they initiate the playtime and end the game when they are done. The owner is encouraged to play games such as fetch, or engage in a walk with the dog if they can control the pace of the walk. Finally, the dog is taught to sit/stay or down/stay on a verbal command. Eventually the dog should be able to sit while the owner leaves the room, returns and releases the dog. Once the dog can do this well, the owner is to introduce a verbal phrase to signal relaxation such as "chill", "relax" or "easy". Again the goal is to teach the dog to take contextual cues from the owner. When given the "chill" command, the dog is to be watching the owner with a calm, relaxed facial expression and body posture. If the owner tells the dog to "chill" the dog learns that this means to relax, focus on my owner and wait for the next command. To facilitate learning this task, food rewards are used. This task is useful as a basis for counterconditioning, which is often used in behavior modification programs for other problem behaviors.7,13,14,15 This program has also been called "Protocol for relaxation: behavior modification tier 1" by Karen Overall.16 The techniques described have been combined various ways in treatment protocols for separation anxiety, dominance aggression, fear aggression and compulsive behaviors.7, 11,13,14 POTENTIAL PROBLEMS AND PITFALLS This plan is not without its problems. Many owners have difficulty ignoring the attention seeking behaviors. What they like about their pet is the persistence and the perceived "need" the pet has for them. These owners are unaware of how their actions are reinforcing behaviors that they do not like or may be contributing to the problem behavior. It is imperative that the concept of control be explained to the owner and how their behavior can change the problem behavior exhibited by their pet. In addition, it is important that the owner not feel as though they are neglecting their pet. Therefore, they must be given guidelines for appropriate interactions. This can include a list of appropriate games, walks, and number of times that they can call the dog and pet it. Each case will be different and have different needs to encourage compliance. If aggression is the major problem then the owners must also be given instructions for safety around their pet and avoidance of further injury. Another problem area can occur 10-14 days into the program. Many animals will initially respond well to the new rules for interaction. However, once they realize that the rules have changed, some dogs will increase their efforts to get the owner to interact in the old manner. This usually results in the dog engaging in attention seeking behaviors at even a higher level than previously exhibited. This is an extinction burst. If owners are warned about this phenomenon, they are prepared and ready to continue the program and wait out the pet. Many dogs will then return to compliant behavior if the owner persists with the plan. RESULTS This is not meant to be a stand alone treatment plan for any and all behavior problems. Neither does it replace the need for complete behavioral histories and diagnosis of behavior problems. Nearly all dog owners are given this plan as an adjunct to a more complete behavior modification program designed to treat their specific problem(s). In each case this plan can act as a framework for beginning to change problem behaviors. Each environment and problem will be different and require modifications to this plan as well as a more in-depth behavioral treatment plan. However, what often is surprising is that many dogs improve greatly as judged by owner reports with only these three steps. What this plan seems to accomplish is to allow owners to change the way they interact with their pet with easy to follow and understand steps. Once owners see that they have the ability to control their pet, and in many cases still have a satisfying relationship, they are often empowered to continue to shape behaviors in more positive directions. CONCLUSION Changing the pet-owner interaction is the first step in behavior therapy. It allows owners to be in control of their pet and its behavior in a benign way. When done correctly it empowers the owner to change their pet's behavior. This will often encourage them to go further and work on specific problems. When explained correctly owners gain a better understanding of canine communication and learning and can use this information in all their interactions with their pet. References 1. Odendaal, JSJ. A diagnostic classification of problem behavior in dogs and cats. In: Veterinary Clinics of North American: Small Animal Practice. Vol. 27:3. 1997. Pp. 427-443. 2. Hallgren, A. Mother and Pups. Animal Behavior Consultant Newsletter, July 1990 Vol. 7:3. 3. Trattner, A. Letter to the Editor. Animal Behavior Consultant Newsletter, Oct. 1990. Vol.7:4. 4. Schilder, MBH, Netto, WJ. Letter to the Editor. Animal Behavior Consultant Newsletter. July 1991. Vol.8: 3. 5. Bradshaw, JWS, Nott, HMR. Social and Communication behaviour of companion dogs. In: The Domestic Dog, J. Serpell Ed. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 1995, pp. 116-130. 6. Line, S, Voith, VL. Dominance Aggression of dogs towards people: Behavior Profile and Response to treatment. Applied Animal Behavior Science. 16(1986) 77-83. 7. Voith, VL, Treatment of Dominance aggression of dogs toward people, Modern Veterinary Practice, 63:2, 1982, 149-152. 8. Campbell, WE, Social attraction the ultimate tool for canine control. Modern Veterinary Practice, 1973 9. Overall, KL. Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Small Animals, Mosby, St. Louis, 1997. Pp. 118. 10 Reisner, IR, Management of Canine Aggression, Veterinary International, Nestec Ltd. Blackwell Scientific Special Projects, Oxford, 1994, pp.28-35. 11. Horwitz, DF. Diagnosis and Treatment of separation-related disorders. Veterinary International. Nestec Ltd. Blackwell Scientific Special Projects, Oxford, 1998, pp. 26-34. 12. Landsberg, G, Hunthausen, W, Ackerman, L Handbook of Behavior Problems in the Dog and Cat. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 1997, pp.102. 13. Overall, KL Treating Canine Aggression. Canine Practice. 18:6, 1993. Pp.24-28. 14. Voith, VL, Borchelt, PL. Fears and Phobia in Companion Animals. In: Readings in Companion Animal Behavior, Voith & Borchelt Eds. Veterinary Learning Systems, Trenton, NJ. 1996, pp.140-152. 15. Luescher, AU. Compulsive behaviour in dogs. Veterinary International. Nestec Ltd. Blackwell Science Ltd. Oxford, 1998. Pp. 7-14. 16. Overall, KL B-2 Protocol for Relaxation: Behavior modification tier 1, Appendix B In: Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Small Animals, Mosby, St. Louis, 1997. Pp. 413.